Why We Age - Anti-aging and Life Extension

The physiological and molecular processes that are collectively known as ageing gradually increase the vulnerability and eventually lead to the death of organisms.  This process of degeneration of an individual is seemingly contradictory to Darwin's theory of Evolution. For how can natural selection favour a process that gradually increases the rate of mortality with age and correspondingly reduces the capacity to reproduce? Why did these so called mechanisms of senescence evolve?  This contradiction has been noticed by a number of scientists over the years and the Evolutionary theory of ageing is an attempt to resolve the question.

In nature, there is an increased reduction of the probability of an organism still being alive at an older age.  This is due to predation, disease and accidental death, all of which may be unpredictable and age-invariant. It is believed that strategies, which result in a higher reproductive rate at a young age, but a relatively shorter overall lifespan, result in greater reproductive success and are therefore favoured by natural selection.  This postulation resulted in the development of the Evolutionary theory of Ageing. 

To help to better understand this theory, think of how in nature all organisms will inevitably die of diseases, accidents, predation, etc.  This means that the genes that are beneficial early in life are favoured by natural selection over genes that are beneficial later in life. To visualise this, imagine a species with an average longevity of 2 years. There is not really much evolutionary advantage in possessing beneficial genes at age 10 because only a small percentage of the population will reach such an age. Genes that are beneficial at the age of 1 however, will be selected for by evolution. To take this reasoning to the next step, a gene that results in the death of an organism at the age of 20 will have a negligible impact on an individual who bears it since only a relatively small percentage of the population will reach such an age. The largest contribution to creating a new generation therefore comes from young, not old organisms and so the influence of natural selection fades with age, producing an environment that makes it possible for potentially damaging late-acting genes to exist.

The Evolutionary theory of ageing (developed by William Hamilton in association with several other researchers), is the classical theory of why humans live so long after their reproductive age is effectively over.  The theory (as was previously discussed) proposes that animals generally die shortly after reproducing due to the fact that lingering for any longer would not lead to any greater numbers of surviving offspring – thought to be the only model for success evolutionarily speaking. Organisms (such as humans) that provide parental care, can however escape this unfortunate state of affairs temporarily because in those species natural selection has a reason to favour genes that promote post-reproductive longevity - a phenomenon that is generally known as the Grandmother effect. 

The Evolutionary theory of ageing therefore defines ageing in terms of natural selection and its relationship with fertility. 

Mark S D'Arcy

I think it might be worth defining on this site (just so there is no confusion) what exactly the science of Gerontology is.

The subject known as Gerontology is the study of the process of aging throughout the lifespan of an individual. This multi-disciplinary subject analyses a variety of aspects of aging, including the physical, mental and social changes in individuals as they grow older. Professionals from a variety of diverse, but interconnected fields are known collectively as gerontologists.

Gerontology covers such varied subjects as the effects of our aging population on society, including the financial effects of pensions, health insurance and retirement planning. How society itself views the elderly is also encompassed in this field.

Gerontology distinguishes itself from geriatrics, the branch of medicine that studies the diseases of the old.

Here is a comilation of new books and publications on ageing and longevity, which have been published this month.

The books listed are shown in reversed chronological order (the most recent books are shown first). For more information relating to these books, just click on the links below:

1. Longevity and Optimal Health: Integrating Eastern and Western Perspectives
by William Bushell (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

2. Continence Care (Essential Clinical Skills for Nurses)
by Florence Mitchell (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

3. Longevity Made Simple: How to Add 20 Good Years to Your Life: Lessons from Decades of Research
by Richard J. Flanigan and Kate Flanigan Sawyer (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

4. Housing for the Elderly: Policy and Practice Issues
by Philip, Ph.D. McCallion (Hardcover - Sep 30, 2007)

5. Lexi- Comp's Geriatric Dosage Handbook: Including Clinical Recommendations and Monitoring Guidelines (Geriatric Dosage Handbook)
by Todd P. Semla, Judith L. Beizer, and Martin D. Higbee (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

6. Smile for Life: Rejuvenation Dentistry and the Art of Wellness
by Gerald P. Curatola (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

7. Aging And Diversity: An Active Learning Experience
by Mehrotra Chandr (Paperback - Sep 28, 2007)

8. Immortality: The Inevitability of Eternal Life
by Rav P. S. Berg (Paperback - Sep 28, 2007)

9. Aging in America: A Wake-Up Call & Call to Action for Seniors & Those Who Love & Serve Them
by Linda Schlenker (Paperback - Sep 25, 2007)

10. How to Reverse Facial Aging
by Brooke R. Seckel (Paperback - Sep 25, 2007)

11. Secrets of Becoming a Late Bloomer: Staying Creative, Aware, and Involved in Midlife and Beyond
by Connie Goldman and Richard Mahler (Paperback - Sep 25, 2007)

12. Essentials of Gerontological Nursing
by Meredith Wallace (Paperback - Sep 24, 2007)

13. 80: From Ben Bradlee to Lena Horne to Carl Reiner, Our Most Famous Eighty Year Olds Reveal Why They Never Felt So Young
by Jim Bellows and Gerald Gardner (Hardcover - Sep 14, 2007)

14. Anemia in the Elderly
by Lodovico Balducci, William B. Ershler, and John M. Bennett (Hardcover - Sep 24, 2007)

15. Dietary Supplements and Health (Novartis Foundation Symposia)
by Novartis Foundation (Hardcover - Sep 24, 2007)

16. The Handbook of Aging and Cognition, 3rd edn
by Craik/Salthouse (Hardcover - Sep 24, 2007)

17. Smart Technology for Aging, Disability, and Independence: Computer and Engineering Design and Applications
by Abdelsalam Helal, Mounir Mokhtari, and Bessam Abdulrazak (Hardcover - Sep 21, 2007)

18. Fit to Retire?: Your Guide to Successful Aging and a New Model for Retirement
by William G. Nelson (Paperback - Sep 19, 2007)

19. Beyond Human: Living with Robots and Cyborgs
by Gregory Benford and Elisabeth Malartre (Hardcover - Sep 18, 2007)

20. Stem Cell Wars: Inside Stories from the Frontlines
by Eve Herold and George Daley (Paperback - Sep 18, 2007)

21. Tales of Graceful Aging from the Planet Denial
by Nicole Hollander (Hardcover - Sep 18, 2007)

22. UltraLongevity: The Seven-Step Program for a Younger, Healthier You
by Mark Liponis and Peter Johnson (Audio CD - Sep 17, 2007) - Abridged

23. Ageing in Asia: Asias Position in the New Global Demography
by Roger Goodman: (Hardcover - Sep 17, 2007)

24. After 50 It's Up To Us: Developing The Skills And Agility We'll Need
by Schofield George (Paperback - Sep 15, 2007)

25. Senior Smart Puzzles
by Lindy McClean (Paperback - Sep 12, 2007)

26. Retirement Places Rated: What You Need to Know to Plan the Retirement You Deserve (Rated)
by David Savageau (Paperback - Sep 11, 2007)

27. Stop Aging, Start Living: The Revolutionary 2-Week pH Diet that Erases Wrinkles, Beautifies Skin, and Makes You Feel Fantastic
by Jeannette Graf and Alisa Bowman (Hardcover - Sep 11, 2007)

28. Genes and Common Diseases: Genetics in Modern Medicine
by Alan Wright and Nicholas Hastie (Hardcover - Sep 10, 2007)

29. Going Gray: What I Learned about Beauty, Sex, Work, Motherhood, Authenticity, and Everything Else That Really Matters
by Anne Kreamer (Hardcover - Sep 10, 2007)

30. Hormones, Gender and the Aging Brain: The Endocrine Basis of Geriatric Psychiatry
by Mary F. Morrison (Paperback - Sep 10, 2007)

31. Complementary Medicine For Dummies (For Dummies (Lifestyles Paperback))
by Jacqueline Young (Paperback - Sep 10, 2007)

32. Apoptosis, Senescence and Cancer (Cancer Drug Discovery and Development)
by David A. Gewirtz, Steven Grant, and Shawn E. Holt (Hardcover - Sep 7, 2007)

33. The Abs Diet Ultimate Nutrition Handbook: Your Reference Guide to Thousands of Foods, and How Each One Shapes Your Body
by David Zinczenko and Ted Spiker (Hardcover - Sep 4, 2007)

34. Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs That Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime
by Aubrey de Grey and Michael Rae (Hardcover - Sep 4, 2007)

35. Fabulous at 50
by Janet, Ph.D. Maccaro (Hardcover - Sep 4, 2007)

36. High Blood Pressure for Dummies (For Dummies (Health & Fitness))
by Alan L., MD Rubin (Paperback - Sep 4, 2007)

37. Working with Older People (Social Work Skills S.)
by John Harris (Paperback - Sep 4, 2007)

38. 60 on Up: The Truth About Aging in America
by Lillian Rubin (Hardcover - Sep 3, 2007)

39. The Ayurveda Encyclopedia: Natural Secrets to Healing, Prevention, & Longevity
by Swami Sadashiva Tirtha (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

40. Health Care Responsibility: The Older Adults Guide to Surviving the Health Care System
by Raymond Lengel (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

41. You Know You've Reached Middle Age If . . .
by Alan Corcoran and Joey Green (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

42. Your Immortal Reality: How to Break the Cycle of Birth and Death
by Gary Renard (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

43. Alzheimer Disease and Other Dementias: A Practical Guide (Practical Guides in Psychiatry)
by Marc E Agronin (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

44. A Family Caregiver Speaks Up: It Doesn't Have to Be This Hard
by Suzanne Geffen Mintz (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

45. Ages, Generations and the Social Contract: The Demographic Challenges facing the Welfare State
by Jacques Veron, Sophie Pennec, and Jacques Legare (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

46. Aging and Mental Health
by Michael A. Smyer (Paperback - Sep 2007)

47. Coming to Terms With Aging: The Secret to Meaningful Time
by Grossman (Paperback - Sep 2007)

48. The Diabetes Lifestyle Book: Facing Your Fears & Making Changes for a Long & Healthy Life
by Jennifer A. Gregg, Glenn M., Ph.D. Callaghan, Steven C. Hayes, and Michael, M.D. Singer (Paperback - Sep 2007)

49. Eternal Puppy: Keeping Your Dog Young Forever
by Janice, Dr. Willard and Marty Becker (Paperback - Sep 2007)

50. Facial Rejuvenation: A Total Approach
by David J. Goldberg (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

51. The Gene Makeover: Personal Genetic Health
by Vincent C., M.D. Giampapa, Ohan Karatoprak, and Carol Isaacson Barash (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

52. Human Longevity, Individual Life Duration, and the Growth of the Oldest-Old Population (International Studies in Population)
by Jean-Marie Robine, Eileen M. Crimmins, Shiro Horiuchi, and Yi Zeng (Paperback - Sep 2007)

53. Oxidative Damage to Nucleic Acids
by Mark D. Evans and Marcus S. Cooke (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

54. The Second Half of Life
by Angeles Arrien (Paperback - Sep 2007)

55. Senior Cats (Animal Planet Pet Care Library)
by Sheila Webster Boneham (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

56. Looking Into Later Life: A Psychoanalytic Approach to Depression and Dementia in Old Age (The Tavistock Clinic Series)
by Rachael Davenhill (Paperback - Sep 2007)

57. Adult Development & Aging
by Sterns, & Feldman Papalia and all material written by Cram101. (Paperback - Aug 29, 2007)

58. Aging: The Paradox of Life: Why We Age
by Robin Holliday (Hardcover - Aug 24, 2007)

59. Allocating Public and Private Resources across Generations: Riding the Age Waves - Volume 2 (International Studies in Population)
by Anne H. Gauthier, C.Y. Cyrus Chu, and Shripad Tuljapurkar (Paperback - Aug 24, 2007)

60. Personalized Nutrition: Principles and Applications
by Frans Kok, Laura Bouwman, and Frank Desiere (Hardcover - Aug 24, 2007)

61. Interactions Between Neurons and Glia in Aging and Disease
by Joao Malva, Ana Cristina Rego, Rodrigo Cunha, and Catarina Oliveira (Hardcover - Aug 22, 2007)

The same list is repeated below in enhanced version with book images added:

-----------------

Enhanced List with Book Images Provided (where they are available)

1.
Longevity and Optimal Health: Integrating Eastern and Western Perspectives
by William Bushell (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

2.
Continence Care (Essential Clinical Skills for Nurses)
by Florence Mitchell (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

3.
Longevity Made Simple: How to Add 20 Good Years to Your Life: Lessons from Decades of Research
by Richard J. Flanigan and Kate Flanigan Sawyer (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

4.
Housing for the Elderly: Policy and Practice Issues
by Philip, Ph.D. McCallion (Hardcover - Sep 30, 2007)

5.
Lexi- Comp's Geriatric Dosage Handbook: Including Clinical Recommendations and Monitoring Guidelines (Geriatric Dosage Handbook)
by Todd P. Semla, Judith L. Beizer, and Martin D. Higbee (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

6.
Smile for Life: Rejuvenation Dentistry and the Art of Wellness
by Gerald P. Curatola (Paperback - Sep 30, 2007)

7.
Aging And Diversity: An Active Learning Experience
by Mehrotra Chandr (Paperback - Sep 28, 2007)

8.
Immortality: The Inevitability of Eternal Life
by Rav P. S. Berg (Paperback - Sep 28, 2007)

9.
Aging in America: A Wake-Up Call & Call to Action for Seniors & Those Who Love & Serve Them
by Linda Schlenker (Paperback - Sep 25, 2007)

10.
How to Reverse Facial Aging
by Brooke R. Seckel (Paperback - Sep 25, 2007)

11.
Secrets of Becoming a Late Bloomer: Staying Creative, Aware, and Involved in Midlife and Beyond
by Connie Goldman and Richard Mahler (Paperback - Sep 25, 2007)

12.
Essentials of Gerontological Nursing
by Meredith Wallace (Paperback - Sep 24, 2007)

13.
80: From Ben Bradlee to Lena Horne to Carl Reiner, Our Most Famous Eighty Year Olds Reveal Why They Never Felt So Young
by Jim Bellows and Gerald Gardner (Hardcover - Sep 14, 2007)

14.
Anemia in the Elderly
by Lodovico Balducci, William B. Ershler, and John M. Bennett (Hardcover - Sep 24, 2007)

15.
Dietary Supplements and Health (Novartis Foundation Symposia)
by Novartis Foundation (Hardcover - Sep 24, 2007)

16.
The Handbook of Aging and Cognition, 3rd edn
by Craik/Salthouse (Hardcover - Sep 24, 2007)

17.
Smart Technology for Aging, Disability, and Independence: Computer and Engineering Design and Applications
by Abdelsalam Helal, Mounir Mokhtari, and Bessam Abdulrazak (Hardcover - Sep 21, 2007)

18.
Fit to Retire?: Your Guide to Successful Aging and a New Model for Retirement
by William G. Nelson (Paperback - Sep 19, 2007)

19.
Beyond Human: Living with Robots and Cyborgs
by Gregory Benford and Elisabeth Malartre (Hardcover - Sep 18, 2007)

20.
Stem Cell Wars: Inside Stories from the Frontlines
by Eve Herold and George Daley (Paperback - Sep 18, 2007)

21.
Tales of Graceful Aging from the Planet Denial
by Nicole Hollander (Hardcover - Sep 18, 2007)

22.
UltraLongevity: The Seven-Step Program for a Younger, Healthier You
by Mark Liponis and Peter Johnson (Audio CD - Sep 17, 2007) - Abridged

23.
Ageing in Asia: Asias Position in the New Global Demography
by Roger Goodman: (Hardcover - Sep 17, 2007)

24.
After 50 It's Up To Us: Developing The Skills And Agility We'll Need
by Schofield George (Paperback - Sep 15, 2007)

25.
Senior Smart Puzzles
by Lindy McClean (Paperback - Sep 12, 2007)

26.
Retirement Places Rated: What You Need to Know to Plan the Retirement You Deserve (Rated)
by David Savageau (Paperback - Sep 11, 2007)

27.
Stop Aging, Start Living: The Revolutionary 2-Week pH Diet that Erases Wrinkles, Beautifies Skin, and Makes You Feel Fantastic
by Jeannette Graf and Alisa Bowman (Hardcover - Sep 11, 2007)

28.
Genes and Common Diseases: Genetics in Modern Medicine
by Alan Wright and Nicholas Hastie (Hardcover - Sep 10, 2007)

29.
Going Gray: What I Learned about Beauty, Sex, Work, Motherhood, Authenticity, and Everything Else That Really Matters
by Anne Kreamer (Hardcover - Sep 10, 2007)

30.
Hormones, Gender and the Aging Brain: The Endocrine Basis of Geriatric Psychiatry
by Mary F. Morrison (Paperback - Sep 10, 2007)

31.
Complementary Medicine For Dummies (For Dummies (Lifestyles Paperback))
by Jacqueline Young (Paperback - Sep 10, 2007)

32.
Apoptosis, Senescence and Cancer (Cancer Drug Discovery and Development)
by David A. Gewirtz, Steven Grant, and Shawn E. Holt (Hardcover - Sep 7, 2007)

33.
The Abs Diet Ultimate Nutrition Handbook: Your Reference Guide to Thousands of Foods, and How Each One Shapes Your Body
by David Zinczenko and Ted Spiker (Hardcover - Sep 4, 2007)

34.
Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs That Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime
by Aubrey de Grey and Michael Rae (Hardcover - Sep 4, 2007)

35.
Fabulous at 50
by Janet, Ph.D. Maccaro (Hardcover - Sep 4, 2007)

36.
High Blood Pressure for Dummies (For Dummies (Health & Fitness))
by Alan L., MD Rubin (Paperback - Sep 4, 2007)

37.
Working with Older People (Social Work Skills S.)
by John Harris (Paperback - Sep 4, 2007)

38.
60 on Up: The Truth About Aging in America
by Lillian Rubin (Hardcover - Sep 3, 2007)

39.
The Ayurveda Encyclopedia: Natural Secrets to Healing, Prevention, & Longevity
by Swami Sadashiva Tirtha (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

40.
Health Care Responsibility: The Older Adults Guide to Surviving the Health Care System
by Raymond Lengel (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

41.
You Know You've Reached Middle Age If . . .
by Alan Corcoran and Joey Green (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

42.
Your Immortal Reality: How to Break the Cycle of Birth and Death
by Gary Renard (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

43.
Alzheimer Disease and Other Dementias: A Practical Guide (Practical Guides in Psychiatry)
by Marc E Agronin (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

44.
A Family Caregiver Speaks Up: It Doesn't Have to Be This Hard
by Suzanne Geffen Mintz (Paperback - Sep 1, 2007)

45.
Ages, Generations and the Social Contract: The Demographic Challenges facing the Welfare State
by Jacques Veron, Sophie Pennec, and Jacques Legare (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

46.
Aging and Mental Health
by Michael A. Smyer (Paperback - Sep 2007)

47.
Coming to Terms With Aging: The Secret to Meaningful Time
by Grossman (Paperback - Sep 2007)

48.
The Diabetes Lifestyle Book: Facing Your Fears & Making Changes for a Long & Healthy Life
by Jennifer A. Gregg, Glenn M., Ph.D. Callaghan, Steven C. Hayes, and Michael, M.D. Singer (Paperback - Sep 2007)

49.
Eternal Puppy: Keeping Your Dog Young Forever
by Janice, Dr. Willard and Marty Becker (Paperback - Sep 2007)

50.
Facial Rejuvenation: A Total Approach
by David J. Goldberg (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

51.
The Gene Makeover: Personal Genetic Health
by Vincent C., M.D. Giampapa, Ohan Karatoprak, and Carol Isaacson Barash (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

52.
Human Longevity, Individual Life Duration, and the Growth of the Oldest-Old Population (International Studies in Population)
by Jean-Marie Robine, Eileen M. Crimmins, Shiro Horiuchi, and Yi Zeng (Paperback - Sep 2007)

53.
Oxidative Damage to Nucleic Acids
by Mark D. Evans and Marcus S. Cooke (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

54.
The Second Half of Life
by Angeles Arrien (Paperback - Sep 2007)

55.
Senior Cats (Animal Planet Pet Care Library)
by Sheila Webster Boneham (Hardcover - Sep 2007)

56.
Looking Into Later Life: A Psychoanalytic Approach to Depression and Dementia in Old Age (The Tavistock Clinic Series)
by Rachael Davenhill (Paperback - Sep 2007)

57.
Adult Development & Aging
by Sterns, & Feldman Papalia and all material written by Cram101. (Paperback - Aug 29, 2007)

58.
Aging: The Paradox of Life: Why We Age
by Robin Holliday (Hardcover - Aug 24, 2007)

59.
Allocating Public and Private Resources across Generations: Riding the Age Waves - Volume 2 (International Studies in Population)
by Anne H. Gauthier, C.Y. Cyrus Chu, and Shripad Tuljapurkar (Paperback - Aug 24, 2007)

60.
Personalized Nutrition: Principles and Applications
by Frans Kok, Laura Bouwman, and Frank Desiere (Hardcover - Aug 24, 2007)

61.
Interactions Between Neurons and Glia in Aging and Disease
by Joao Malva, Ana Cristina Rego, Rodrigo Cunha, and Catarina Oliveira (Hardcover - Aug 22, 2007)

Key words:
books, publications, longevity, gerontology, aging, ageing, geriatrics, geriatric, anti-aging, anti-ageing, rejuvenation, life-extension, Lifespan, immortality, senescence,

There are several other ways that are being looked into that may offer may anti-aging/life extension benefits that have not been mentioned as yet. IGF-1 has shown to be extraordinarily effective in reversing the aging process (up to 10X more effective than HGH). Resveratrol (found in red grape skins and hence red wine) has shown much promise in many studies; to the extent that several MIT researches doing one of the studies started supplimenting with it. Folate and B12 taken daily over a few months has been shown to drastically reduce the damage/mutation that can occur to DNA.

With regard to calorie restriction Many studies suggest that it is not infact the calorie restriction as previously thought but rather maintaining low insulin levels, which happens to be a by product. So it is as much about what you eat as how much you eat. You could still each 3000 calories a day as long as they were from foods that didnt spike your insulin levels and mess with your insulin sensetivity ie not eating many simple carbohydrates etc

There is also the energetic side of body or life force or call it what you will that when boosted has been shown to reverse chronic illness and aging with no form of supplements etc. Most of the centurian populations like the hunza etc incorporated some sort of meditation or practice that maintained their life force either knowingly or otherwise along with a good diet, exercise, sun etc and low stress.

On a final note the human body is so remarkable and truely an amazing creation and we are still only so limited in our understanding of it and how it really works that rather than mess with it and start trying to fix or add this or that or think we can make part of it better we should instead address the cause of most of these problems. We drive ourselves and our bodies into the ground eat rubbish etc and program ourselve with mindless entertainment and wonder why we are falling apart and expect to be able to take a few pills and make it all better.

We are creating and living in a society that is becoming void of any real sustanance whether it be nutritional, emotional or intellecutal. I am not pretending that i have all the answers but i know that if we keep heading in this direction i wouldnt want to live forever even if it were possible. What you do with your life is probably more important than how long it is. In any case given the right environment the body will flourish and the fact that it is still doing as well as it is despite what it is now subjected to is nothing more than a testement to how great it actually is.

Rhonda Watson

Cryonics and Suspended Animation. No longer just Science Fiction

Suspended animation or cryonics is a science that has in most peoples minds remained firmly in the realms of science fiction, apart that is from the work conducted by a few heavily mocked researchers based primarily in California.  This state of affairs is probably due to some of the very entertaining and in some cases horrific science fiction novels and movies that have been produced.  As a result of the often macabre portrayal of resurrected corpses committing murders and destroying souls, this potentially world changing set of technologies have been dubbed ‘pseudo science’ and the scientists who work in the areas thought of as cranks.

This is strange when one considers the potential of cryonically suspending and successfully reviving a human being.  Imagine a world where no disease could ever threaten an individual’s life, nor could the debilitating and eventually fatal results of aging.  If your body became damaged beyond repair, then you would simply have your body suspended and at a later date, when a cure for your disease is found, you would then be revived and continue with your life.

Admittedly being reanimated would be very traumatic if several decades had passed between your suspension and your revival.  The world would have changed and you would have not.  I’m sure though, that humans being the adaptable creatures that they are, they would soon get used to their new world and begin once again to contribute towards it.
Regardless though of the obvious benefits of funding research into cryonics, only a few reputable scientists have become involved in this young discipline (see below).
 
Current research into Cryonics

The scientists Mark B. Roth and Todd Nystul recently released some interesting results regarding experiments that they conducted in order to induce states of suspended animation in a variety of organisms.

A large number of organisms possess the ability to slow or even halt their cellular metabolic processes in order to achieve a state of hibernation or even suspended animation during periods of extreme conditions. Nematodes, Ground squirrels, various frogs and even the Salamander can naturally enter these states. For example extreme low or high temperatures or oxygen deprivation (anoxia) can induce such states.

Reduced levels of oxygen supply specifically, can be a major cause of cellular and tissue damage in donor organs and in the bodies of individuals that have suffered severe blood loss or blood flow obstruction. In the later case from such causal agents as strokes or myocardial infarction. In cases such as these restoring an adequate blood supply is not always easily possible and the cells and tissues suffer damage due to this low oxygen or hypoxic environment. It has been found through experimentation however that if you reduce oxygen levels even further, to a point where the oxygen levels reach anoxic levels (levels were oxygen is nearly completely removed from the tissues). Then this results in many organisms entering a state of hibernation or suspended animation. Basically this is a state were metabolic processes are slowed down drastically.

An example of a simple organism that can be induced to enter this state is the nematode caenorhabditis elegans. This worm, when exposed to anoxic conditions will enter a state of suspended animation and will then continue its life cycle when oxygen levels return to a normal or normoxic level.

More complex animals, such as mice have been induced to enter such a state of suspended animation artificially, by exposing them to an atmosphere that is up to 80 parts per million of Hydrogen Sulphide or H2S. This molecule is an oxygen mimetic and competes with oxygen to bind with Cytochrome C, a respiratory enzyme that is important in regulating cellular metabolism. When the mice were exposed to such an environment there metabolism was found to slow down drastically, together with their body temperature and their rate of breaching slowed down from 120 to as low as 10 breaths per minute. The mice were left in this environment for six hours before a normal atmosphere was restored. When it was restored the mice were tested to see if any damage had resulted to them. All tests showed that the animals were unaffected by this extreme environment.

This shows that inducing hibernation in an advanced mammal is possible. If it works for a mouse, then it is likely to work for a human.

Another experiment that was conducted on a group of dogs found that if you induce cardiac arrest and then replace their blood supply with a saline solution that is low in oxygen, you are then able to perform surgery on these animals, replace normal blood and revive them with a minimal level of cellular damage. It seems that tissue damage resulting from natural processes during surgery occurs at a lower level during these states of suspended animation. This situation has been accidentally mimicked in humans. For example a Norwegian backcountry skier had an accident that resulted in her spending over an hour under ice cold water. When she was found she was clinically dead. It took several hours of resuscitation to bring her back, but she is now well.

This shows that suspended animation results in a slowing down or retardation of tissue damage in humans also.

All of these experiments and observations seem to imply that there is a potential to develop techniques that will eventually allow humans to be induced to enter a state of hibernation or suspended animation. These techniques could result in a much better prognosis for patients undergoing extreme surgery and may even result in people with untreatable diseases eventually being placed into states of suspended animation until suitable treatments become available!

Mark S D'Arcy

The problem with Telomere shortening occurs because, in order to change the RNA primers into DNA, there must be another DNA segment in front of the primer.  There is a DNA segment ahead of the primer at every section of the strand, except where the last primer attaches (the end of the telomere).  This means that this final primer cannot be replaced with DNA.  It does get removed by various enzymes however, but in the process, the telomere shortens.

In human blood cells, the range of lengths of the telomeres varies between 8000 base pairs at birth, to 1,500 base pairs in the elderly.  During cellular division, an average of 30 to 200 base pairs are removed from the ends of the telomeres.

In normal cases, the cells of a human can divide between 50 to 70 times, with the telomeres shortening with each division, until the cells either commit suicide through a process known as Apoptosis, become Senescent (dormant) or transform to cancerous cells due to genetic damage.

The process of Cellular senescence due to Telomere Shortening

As a cells telomeres shorten during multiple cellular divisions, DNA damage occurs and the cell, recognising this damage shuts itself down.  Below is a simplified diagram of how this occurs.

Telomere shortening and aging

DNA damage results in an activation of the p53 gene.  p53 then activates p21, which blocks the actions of a number of CDK’s (Cycline Dependent Kinases).  Note that CDK’s are involved in the regulation of the cell cycle, transcription and mRNA processing.  The blocking of certain CDK’s prevents the phosphorylation of pRb.  This lack of hyperphosphorylated pRb results in a failure of expression of several critical genes, which are involved in cellular division.  Cellular division then stops.

Telomerase and Telomere extension

A study was conducted (as so many aging studies are) using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (Joeng KS, Song EJ, Lee KJ, Lee J (2004). "Long lifespan in worms with long telomeric DNA". Nature Genetics 36 (6): 607-11.).  This study indicates that by lengthening the Telomere, longevity can be increased. 

Two distinct groups of Nematodes were engineered.  The only difference between the two groups, was the length of the Telomere.  The group with the longer telomere’s lived approximately 20 percent longer than the group with the shorter telomeres.  Also, it was observed that the Nematode’s with the longer telomeres possessed a greater resistance to the effects of heat exposure.

Telomerase is the natural enzyme which promotes telomere repair.  It is however not active in most cells.  It certainly is active though in stem cells, germ cells, hair follicles and (worryingly) in 90 percent of cancer cells.  Telomerase functions by adding bases to the ends of the telomeres.  As a result of this telomerase activity, these cells seem to possess a kind of immortality.

In 1990 a team at Geron Corp in Menlo Park, California led by Serge Lichtsteiner and Andrea Bodnar,in association with the University of texas Southwestern Medical center, managed to activate the production of telomerase in cells that do not usually produce this enzyme.  The results were that the telomeres started to lengthen.  By the time that they released the results of their study, their cells had divided 20 or more times than would normally be expected before senescence would set in.  These cells also seemed to retain their normal gene expression and showed no signs of becoming cancerous.

I will now try to explain in more detail the details and results of the teams study.

Basically, telomerase is present in all cell types, however the human gene for the catalytic protein telomerase transcriptase (hTRT) is present only in immortal cells (such as stem cells or cancerous cells).  Scientists from the teams observed that lengthening of telomeres in retinal pigment epithelial cells, foreskin fibroblasts and vascular endothelial cells by introducing the hTRT gene into these cells, results in a resumption of telomerase activity.  This resumption resulted in the extended longevity of the cultured cells, as discussed previously.

Varying Telomere decline

One interesting study by Peter Lansdorp of the Terry Fox Laboratory, Canada, observed in human fibroblasts that the rate of telomere shortening as cells divide varies between different telomeres.  This variation is between 50 to 150 base pairs per cell division.  It is worth noting that the telomeres that are shorter initially.  For example in humans the 17p telomere, are not necessarily the ones to be destroyed first!  It does seem that it is the shortening of specific telomeres that are linked to a cells decline into senescence, apoptosis or its transformation into a cancer.  Martens et al, 1998, observed that the shortening of telomeres 1p, 5p and 22p, but not that of 17p, showed a statistical correlation with the descent into cellular senescence. 

Despite all of the above outlined observations, it is a statement of fact that the mean telomere length of a species does not always relate to the longevity of that species.  For example Katuo et al, 1999, noted that of all studied primates, humans seem to have both the shortest telomeres and the longest lifespan!  Bassham et al, 1998, also observed that the long lived frog Xenopus Laevis displayed a great variation in telomere length and that telomere length could even diminish between parent and offspring, with no detectable consequences.

To summarise, it seems that it has not yet been determined whether the instability of a chromosome and its eventual deterioration is a result of general telomere shortening or the shortening of specific telomeres.  It has however been found that by artificially lengthening the telomeres of cells, which do not normally have a mechanism to lengthen their own telomeres, the cells longevity and ability to function normally for longer, does increase.  More research therefore needs to be conducted in order to determine the exact significance of telomere length in the aging of an organism and the exact consequences of artificially stimulating telomere repair.

Mark S D'Arcy

If you want to live longer and be healthy for those extra years, then it's a matter of playing the probabilities. You can increase the chances of living a longer and healthier life by following the below steps. Although this is no guarantee of attaining a ripe old age, following these steps makes living longer at least more likely.

Step one - Eating for a long life

To live longer you need to eat the correct food. A low fat diet with plenty of greens is not all I mean by that either. You need to take in a wide variety of foods if you are to ensure that you have all of the correct vitamins, minerals, proteins, fatty acids and trace elements to keep healthy and to fight off disease. So to live longer, together with keeping fat and general sugar levels in your diet to a minimum, you need to also ensure that your diet is as varied as possible. Swap around the foods that you take in, experiment with new vegetables and fruits and don’t be afraid to be generally adventurous with your diet. Of course still always obey the hard fast rule of reading the label first and doing a little general research into any food that you do make a part of your diet!

Finally, as an increasingly large amount of evidence is gathering as to the positive effects of various antioxidant foods in the diet, try to include these types of foods in your meals as much as possible.

Step two - Exercise your body into a long life

Exercise is not just good for the heart, depending on the kind of exercise that you do, it can:

lower your blood pressure
Improve circulation
Lower the risk of a stroke
Help to strengthen your immune system
Prevent muscle and bone atrophy
Improve concentration and memory
Increase life expectancy
When exercising aerobically oxygen demand in the muscles increases in order to fuel the muscle contractions. With prolonged periods of exercise, the body adapts to this need for oxygen in the following ways:

Blood vessels widen so that more blood (and therefore oxygen) can be transported to the muscles), a bi-product of which is a general increase in the body’s ability to deliver oxygen to all muscles and organs (including the brain)
The heart increases in size and strength in order to pump the blood to the muscles, a side effect of which is a decrease in the hearts susceptibility to injury and disease
Hormones such as growth hormone are produced in greater amounts in order to repair the exercise-damaged muscle fibres, an hormone that also increases general strength and vigour in many other organs and tissues of the body
Therefore, in order to live longer, exercise should be included in your day to day routine as much as possible.

Step three - Learn the lessons of the hundred year olds. Don’t stress

Many studies have been conducted involving centenarians (individuals who have lived for a hundred years or more) and a lot of information has been gathered relating to their diets, life styles and genetics. Whilst it is true that many centenarians tend to have many family members who have also lived long lives, a fact that implies a genetic component to longevity, one striking commonality is also present in the subjects. Namely they generally seem to have a low tendency towards stress. Many centenarians tend to be relaxed individuals who seem to take life as it comes, neither subjecting themselves to stressful stimuli if they can avoid it and taking stressors in a relaxed and measured way when they do present themselves.

Stress has such a strong effect on health and the length of life because a stressed individual produces high levels of damaging hormones such as Cortisol. Hormones that weaken the immune system and inhibit the body’s ability to fight of infection and to repair damaged tissues. All of which reduces life expectancy.

So the moral of the story is that if you want to live a long life, then you should try to avoid stressful situations as much as you are able to. Or at least learn to deal with stress in a measured and controlled way.

Step four - Sleep

What happens when you sleep? Well, you dream, you toss and turn, maybe you snore ;-) All true, but one other thing that you do when you sleep, is you repair damaged tissues and organs. Whilst you are asleep, a number of hormones (such as Growth hormone) are released into the blood stream and this initiates a process of cell and tissue regeneration which is unable to be fully accomplished whilst awake. Lack of sleep therefore inhibits our quest to live longer. With this in mind, you should try your best to get those early nights or at least if you don’t, then do your best to have a sleep in at the weekends.

Step five – Develop strong and loving relationships

It has been shown that individuals who live longer also have a higher likelihood of being surrounded by loved ones. They tend to get married, have children and have a close circle of friends. These individuals therefore have emotional support around them in times of stress and hardship. All of which means that their levels of stress, are reduced. Reduced stress causes a cascade of other benefits to the body:

A reduction in the levels of damaging hormones, such as Cortosol
Deeper and more effective sleep
A reduction in blood pressure
A strengthening of the immune system

In Conclusion

All of the above steps are just a general guide, but if you do play the odds and try to incorporate these steps into your life, then you may find that you live longer and are healthier and happier in the life that you have.

For more on how to live longer or to share your thoughts about the field of longevity, join the Why we Age forum.

Mark S D'Arcy

• Vitamin C can be ingested in Large amounts and does not seem to cause any detrimental affects. However, our bodies will only process it in the amounts that it needs it. Therefore taking large doses of vitamin C does not seem to offer any particularly beneficial results.

• It has been found that in Fat-specific Insulin Receptor KnockOut mice (FIRKO mice) that the average life expectancy is 18% higher than that of normal mice. These mice also have reduced fat mass and a normal calorie intake.

• A mammals ability into a water soluble form, the carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene correlates with that animals maximum life span.

• In the long lived transgenic fruit fly Drosophila Melanogaster, a 50% increase in maximum life expectancy was gained by the overexpression of the enzyme which is responsible for the synthesis of glutathione.

• In the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans a mutation in the age-1 gene was found to increase the average life span by 65% and the maximum lifespan by 110%.

• The rate of DNA repair and life span is directly correlated in mammals.

• Drosophila Melanogaster fruit flies, which were bred for 15 generations only from eggs laid at the tail end of the natural reproductive cycle were able to achieve maximum life spans that were 30% higher than controls.

• In a study on the hearts and brains of 8 non-primate species of mammals, a direct correlation was found between the maximum longevity of the organism and the oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).

• A study of the pigeon and several species of mammals pointed towards a linear relationship between maximum longevity and oxidative damage to protein.

• By over expressing human catalase in transgenic mice and targeting it to mitochondria, the maximum life span of subject mice has been extended by approximately 20%.

• In 7 mammalian species (mouse, hamster, rat, guinea-pig, rabbit, pig and cow) a comparison showed that the rate of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production in the mitochondria of the heart and kidney were inversely correlated with maximum longevity.

• There is a positive correlation between lower rates of free radical production and higher rates of DNA repair in maximum mammalian longevity. There is also a negative correlation between antioxidant enzyme levels and maximum mammalian life span.

• The levels of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and Mn-SOD (superoxide dismutase) have been found to be expressed more in mammalian females than in their male counterparts. This has led to the speculation that this may be the reason why female life expectancy is higher than that of males.

• In mammals it has been found that there is a direct correlation between maximum longevity and mitochondrial membrane saturation.

• The rate of telomere shortening has been shown to be inversely related in selected species of mammals and birds to maximum longevity.

• An inverse relationship has been found between the number of double bonds in liver lipids and maximum life expectancy in mammals.

• Despite both rats and pigeons having a very similar metabolic rate and cardiac output, they have very different life spans. 4 year maximum for rats and 35 year maximum for the pigeon. A comparison of the heart mitochondria in these two species showed that the pigeon mitochondria leak fewer free radicals into the cytoplasm than do the rat mitochondria.

• The animal with the longest life expectancy is the giant tortoise. It can live for up to 177 years in captivity.

• The animal with the shortest life expectancy is the Gastrotrich. This is an aquatic animal with a life expectancy of just three days. Note here that despite popular belief, the Mayfly does not live for one day. It lives in its larval (aquatic form) for quite some time before metamorphosing and emerging into the atmosphere.

• The ten most potent dietary sources of antioxidants are TOMATOES, BERRIES, SPINACH, WHOLE GRAINS, GARLIC, BROCCOLI, TEA, SOY, CARROTS and RED GRAPES. For full descriptions of each of these foodstuffs and what exactly they contain, see The Top Ten Antioxidant Foods

• The oldest human being on record was Jeanne Calment. She died in 2005 with an undisputed age of 122.

• Jeanne Calment is the only human being who is undisputed to have lived for over 120 years.

Mark S D'Arcy

Firstly this is a new and interactive anti-aging and general life extension resource for anyone who is interested in the cellular processes of aging and senescence.

Here you will find a variety of life extension articles and pages relating to how DNA and chromosomes become damaged during the progress of an organisms lifetime. Damage that occurs primarily due to Free Radicals, high energy oxidants, which are produced as a by-product of the cells natural metabolic processes.

The second thing that this site aims to accomplish is to outline how anti-aging intracellular mechanisms such as free radical scavengers - Glutathione Peroxidase, Superoxide Dismutase and Catalase being prime examples, DNA repair enzymes and other intracellular processes attempt to slow down the damage to cells and organisms, which are inevitable consequences of aging.

We then discuss the current research into retarding the processes involved in aging and show how longevity has been increased in a variety of organisms through both genetic and dietary manipulation.

To help to make this site easier to follow and to gain knowledge from it, I will begin (as I will in each section of the site) with a few definitions. On this first page, the logical definitions to introduce are those of Aging, Senescence and Anti-aging.

Aging or ageing

Aging can be defined as any change to an individual organism over time.  Aging is associated with several interdependent processes.  These processes are physical, social and psychological in nature.  Aging usually affects negatively physiological attributes such as strength, reaction time and the ability to fight disease.

Senescence

This can be defined as the gradual accumulation of damage and loss of functionality in an organism as it ages.

Anti-aging

Anti-aging includes a number of preventative measures and treatments that together help to reduce the level of senescence that an organism experiences as it ages.  Anti-aging measures include exercising, eating a healthy and nutritious diet and taking various hormonal supplements as our bodies gradually produce lower levels of their own hormones. 

If you Create a Why We Age Login Account, then you will be able to add your own pages, articles or blogs to this site or comment on any existing articles, blogs or pages.

Enjoy the site. I hope that you find it enlightening!

Mark S D’Arcy